THE BATTLE OF GAUGAMELA 

331 BC

 After the Greek victory at Issus, Alexander continued south down the Aegean coastline and occupied Egypt unopposed. With Egypt captured, Alexander had secured the Greek mainland from Persian naval attack and could now move inland to the heart of the Persian empire. 

On the plains of Gaugamela near the city of Arbela, King Darius had assembled another large army to confront Alexander. However besides a few regular Persian units and Greek mercenaries to form the core of his army, for Gaugamela, Darius had truly scraped the bottom of the manpower barrel.

Alexander now marched his troops to within sight of Gaugamela. The Greek army of forty thousand infantry and seven thousand cavalry, would find themselves matched by an immense Persian army of some two hundred thousand infantry and forty thousand cavalry. 

For the upcoming battle Darius placed his chariots to the front of his army. Behind these stood the bulk of the Persian cavalry extended in line to both wings with the Persian infantry to the rear.In response, Alexander placed his infantry phalanx's in the center with his cavalry supported by light infantry on both flanks. 

Darius opened the battle ordering his left wing cavalry under general Bessos to attack. The Persian horseman at first rode outward to the extreme left and then slowly wheeled right in an attempt to roll up Alexander's right flank. 

Although heavily outnumbered the Macedonian right wing cavalry commander general Ariston, led a desperate charge towards the oncoming Persians. Once engaged, Ariston found it difficult to hold the Persian attack until Alexander sent in units of the reserve infantry phalanx to stabilize the situation.

Darius now ordered his two hundred chariots forward to attack the Macedonian center. As the chariots drew closer the Macedonian infantry began to divide ranks and form corridors, simply letting the chariots pass through, only to be later surrounded and cut to peices.

Bessos's attack on the Greek right wing had created a large gap between the Persian left flank and the cavalry battle, Alexander now assumed command of his companion cavalry and charged forward into the breach against the exposed Persian left. 

With Alexander's manouvre still in progress and Bessos's attack locked in bloody stalemate, king Darius now ordered general Mazaeus and his entire right wing cavalry force of twenty thousand horsemen forward to attack the Macedonian left wing.

The Persian charge slammed into the Macedonian's under Alexander's second in command General Parmenio. The sheer weight of the assault forced the Greek line to buckle and fall back. Meanwhile the Macedonian center now prematurely marched towards Alexander in support. As a result a large opening developed separating the army in two.

With Alexander's center wide open, Darius ordered his reserve heavy cavalry supported by Greek Mercenaires forward to occupy and extend the gap. However the Persians continued to advance through the vacant center and deep into the rear areas of the enemy army. 

The attack soon began to trickle away as the Persians and mercenaires contended themselves with looting Alexander's supply train. It was with ease that they were forced to scatter when Alexander's reserve infantry phalanxes arrived to check them.

Although the Persian threat to the Macedonian center had now been thwarted, both Greek flank's under Parmenio and Ariston were exhausted and close to collapse. It is at this critical moment that Alexander's companion cavalry succed in outflanking the Persian's central positions. 

With Alexander now behind the Persian formations, he now orders a left wheel towards the Persian center. In desperation, Darius orders what remains of his infantry to fall back and form a new defensive line, but they respond to slow and Alexander simply outflank's the Persian's and continous onward towards Darius himself.

With the Persian left wing crumbling and no reserves left to throw in against Alexander's coming charge, Darius chooses to save himself and abandones his army to its fate. The Persian's now begin to disintegrate as remaining units begin fleeing in all directions, leaving only the Greek mercenaries as an orginized fighting force. 

Alexander now orders his cavalry to envelope his former countrymen still occupying the center of the battlefield to prevent their escape, while Parmenio brings up his reformed infantry phalanxes to complete the encirclement.

To Alexander, these men were traitors and were to be shown no mercy, he thus gave the order to annihalte them. Facing attacks from all sides, resistance within the pocket soon collapsed. Only when Alexander was satisfied that every man had been slain, does he give the order to halt the slaughter.

Alexander's victory at Gaugamela completely destroyed the Persian army as a fighting force. The Persians suffered fifty thousand dead and an equal number taken prisoner along with twenty thousand Greek mercenaries. Casualties within the Macedonian Greek army numbered a mere 3,000 men.

King Darius was now to become a fugitive in the vast empire he once ruled, only to be later murdered by general Bessos and his royal body guard. When Alexander discovered Darius he gave him a royal burial ceremony at Persepolis. Alexander then persued Bessos, capturing and executing him the following year. 

THE BATTLE OF GAUGAMELA

YOU TUBE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gQic9m8yiJs

 

THE BATTLE OF ALESIA  52 BC

During the Roman Gallic campaign of fifty eight to fifty one BC, Julius Caesars brutal repression of the populace was severe and had earned him many enemies among the tribes of Gaul. There had been many revolts and small scale rebellions, however the Romans dealt with each crisis easily. 

One Gallic Prince, Vercingetorix, realized if Gaul was to become free of the Romans, all the tribes within Gaul would have to put aside their differences and join forces. In fifty three BC, Vercingetorix gained the support of several powerful tribes and called for an uprising to expel the Romans.

Vercingetorix adopted a policy of guerilla war and scorthched earth. After some initial successes, Vercingetorix challenged Caesar to open battle at Gerovia and was soundley defeated in fifty two BC. He then withdrew the remainder of his Gallic army to the fortified hill town of Alesia.

VERCINGETORIX

When Caesar arrived at Alesia with seventy thousand legionaires he saw why Vercingetorix and his army of eighty thousand had chosen this spot to make a stand. Alesia was an invulnerable hill, a natural fortress, Caesar knew he could not attack such a defensive position without suffering immense casualties.

Caesar therefore decided on laying siege to the fortress and ordered the construction of eight camps to completley souround the hill. Vercingetorix however launched a surprise assault down the forward base of the hill to attempt a breakout but was repulsed with heavy casualties. 

To slow down further attacks upon his men, Caesar ordered his legionaires to construct a six foot trench around Vercingetorix's entire position, he also oversaw the installation of deadly obstacles and booby traps designed to cripple and maim any attackers. 

ALESIA

The Romans then dug two more trenches, one of which was flooded. The earth from these ditches was used to construct a massive fifteen foot earth wall upon which the Romans built a ten foot barricade which was dominated by conning towers.

Vercingetorix did nothing further to prevent the Romans from completing there fortifications, he was confident in the fact that he had earlier sent for reinforcements. Caesar was also aware that a Gallic relief army was approaching and constructed a second defensive system facing outward around the inner works already completed.

The Gaul's had assembled an immense army numbering nearly two hundred and sixty thousand men. With Gallic forces camped outside his outer line and Vercingetorix's eighty thousand strong army still atop Alesia, Caesar and his fourteen legions numbering seventy thousand, now found themselves outnumbered and surrounded.

At dawn the next day, the Gauls launched a massed cavalry assault against the outer walls, in support Vercingetorix ordered an infantry attack down the slope's in the same direction. the Gallic charge however was cut down and impaled by the hundreds, as they pushed forward against thousands of stakes and sharpened metal obsticales. 

Of those horseman which did penetrate the outer defences, Ceaser's trench works quickley swallowed up the remaining chargers. Vercingetorix's infantry attack on the inner defenses faired little better as wave upon wave of Gallic infantry met their end attempting to navigate the Roman killing fields. 

Although losses on the first day of battle had been severe, the Gallic leadership decided not to withdrawal but to remain and give battle. the Gaul's then launched a surprise pre dawn attack on the Roman outer defenses. Vercingetorix in support, again ordered an assault in the same direction against Caesars inner defenses. 

The Romans now found themselves hard pressed to hold the enemy from overwhelming their positions. The sheer weight of the Gallic attack now began to show signs of success. With the situation critical, Caesar himself rushed to the trouble spots along the Roman line to join in the hand to hand fighting along side his exhausted troops. 

Witnessing Caesar fighting along side them, gave the individual Roman Legionaire renewed vigor to throw the Gaul's back. The feirce close quarter hand to hand fighting would continue all through the day, as dusk approached the Gaul's had still not broken through the Roman defences and began to fall back.

After two days of fighting, both Gallic armies had suffered severe casualties. At a council of war, the Gallic chiefs found themselves faced with the reality of surrender or continue on fighting. After taking stock of their remaining forces they had just enough troops for one more assault and decided on the latter.

At dawn forty thousand Gauls launched there attack against the Roman outer defences. At the same moment Vercingetorix ordered his remaining thirty thousand warriors down the slopes against the Roman inner lines. Caesar and his legion's now found themselves facing an all out assault.

The fighting now became more desperate and savage, the Gaul's knew this was there last good chance of defeating the Romans and pressed home their attack. Caesar observed that his northern defences were hard pressed and close to breaking, he thus ordered the last of his cavalry reserves to rush to that sector and attack the Gaul's from the rear. 

Just as the Gallic assault began to breach the outer wall, the Gauls were suddenly surprised to find Roman cavalry bearing down on them. the attacking Gaul's then panicked and began to scatter in all directions. The Roman cavalry then continued with their persuit of the fleeing Gaul's cutting them down by the hundreds. 

With their best troops being massacred and Vercingetorix's failure to breach the Roman inner walls, The Gallic chiefs ordered a general withdrawal, which soon turned into a route as the Roman cavalry then swung out onto the open plains and charged throught the Gallic camp.

After three days of hard fighting the battle of Alesia was over, the Romans had won a crushing and decisive victory, destroying the powerful Gallic tribes, ending the war, and turning the nation of Gaul into a province of the emerging Roman Empire.

At battle's end, Caesar had successfully defended twenty five miles of entrenchment and beaten two armies, which combined outnumbered him five to one. Roman casulties were twelve thousand killed. The Gallic federation suffered one hundred and fifty thousand killed and forty thousand taken prisoner.

The next day Vercingetorix surrendered, he was chained and sent to Rome to be part of Caesars triumphant parade, where during the celebration, he was ritually strangled.

THE BATTLE OF ALESIA

YOU TUBE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q3HMJVOwxIU&t=3s

 

GENERAL ROBERT E. LEE

Born January 19th 1807 in Stratford Virginia, he was the son of Lieutenant Colonel Henry Lee who had served as the Governor of Virginia and had earned the respect and friendship of President George Washington as an outstanding cavalry commander during the American Revolution.

Lee graduated from West Point in 1840 second in his class. Commissioned a second Lieutenant in the engineers, he served with distinction during the Mexican war of 1846 - 48, being promoted to the rank of full Colonel. 

After the war he spent the next six years commanding the 2nd cavalry regiment in Texas. While on furlough back home in Virginia, Lee took command of a detachment of U.S. Marines which put down and captured John Brown after he seized the arsenal at Harper's Ferry in a failed attempt to insight a slave rebellion in October 1859. 

Lee was recalled to Washington when Texas seceded from the union in February 1861. Lee was offered command of the federal army but declined for his home state of Virginia had also seceded, he then resigned his comision and joined the Confederacy.

Lee assumed command of the army of Northern Virginia in June 1862 after General Joseph E. Johnston was severally wounded during the battle of seven pines which ended in a draw for both the Confederacy and the Union.

In the seven days battles of June 25th to July 1st, Lee defeated Union Major General George B. McClellan in a series of bloody encounters at Oak Grove June 25th, Mechanicsville the 26th, Gaines Mill the 27th, the Peach Orchard and Savages Station the 29th and Fraysers Farm on June 30th, inflicting 16,000 casualties upon them. 

Lee then defeated a Union army under General John Pope at the battle of second Manassass August 28th - 30, inflicting 15,000 casualties upon the Federals and preventing the capture of the Confederate capital of Richmond.

In early September the 30,000 strong army of Northern Virginia crossed the Potomac River into Maryland to be confronted by General McClellan's 55,000 men at the battle of Antietam on the 17th.

Although the battle was closely contested, Lee suffered 11,000 casualties and was compelled to withdrawal back across the Potomac back into Virginia.

President Lincoln now replaced McClellan with Major General Ambrose Burnside with orders to pursue Lee back to Richmond. However Lee won a brilliant victory at the battle of Fredericksburg  December 11th - 15, inflicting 13,000 casualties upon the Union forces.

Then Lee's 60,000 strong Army of Northern Virginia being outnumbered more than two to one, won a series of stunning victory's against the Army of the Potomac under Major General Joseph Hooker during the Chancellorsville campaign April 30th - May 6, 1863. Inflicting 17,000 casualties upon the Federals.

Following this string of Confederate victory's, Lee moved north into Pennsylvania with 75,000 men but was soundly defeated by Union Major General George Meade at the battle of Gettysburg, July 1st - 4, suffering 32,000 casualties.

Lee then fought Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant to a draw at the battle of Battle of the Wilderness Virginia despite being outnumbered two to one, May 5th - 7, 1864.

Then in a brilliant defensive campaign, Lee defeated Grant at the battle of Cold Harbor near Mechanicsville Virginia May 31st - June 12th, inflicting 13,000 casualties upon the Army of the Potomac against 5,000 of his own.

Lee was then charged with the defense of Petersburg and Richmond, which developed into a campaign consisting of nine months of trench warfare lasting from June 9th 1864 to March 25th 1865. 

In early March 1865, Union forces commanded by Lt. General Ulysses S. Grant finally succeeded in cutting off the Richmond to Petersburg railroad effectively cutting of both cities from contact and further supply.

With supplies of food, medicine and ammunition running out, Lee finally gave in to the pressure and abandoned both cities on March 25th. The nine month siege had cost the Union 42,000 casualties in comparison to Confederate losses of 28,000 men and 25,000 by desertions.

Lee now retreated west, hoping to join his army with the Confederate Army of Tennessee under Lieutenant General Alexander P. Stewart in North Carolina. However two cavalry corps under General Philip Sheridan cut off the Confederate retreat near Appomattox Court House Virginia. 

Lee launched a last ditch attack to break through the Union forces but failed suffering heavy losses. Lee now knew he was only delaying the inevitable and surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant later that evening.

After the war Lee returned to Virginia a paroled prisoner and became president of Washington College until his death on October 12th 1870.

Because of his command of Confederate forces during the war, Lee had been stripped of his citizenship. However it was fully restored by the United States Congress in 1975.

 

THE BATTLE OF TSUSHIMA

1905

For the greater part of the eighteenth century, the Japanese had been unsuccessful in securing command of the sea's surrounding their island nation because Imperial Russia had stationed powerful naval squadrons in their far eastern ports of Arthur and Vladivostok. This presence of foreign warships so close to Japan itself prevented the Japanese from their goals of Asian expansion.

On Feburary 8th 1904, without a declaration of war the Japanese Imperial navy attacked and severally mauled the Russian Pacific battle fleet as it lay at anchor in Port Arthur.    

On August 14th the Japanese followed up this success defeating the Vladivostok heavy cruiser squadrons at the battle of the Korean straight. Japan then imposed a naval blockade along with a land siege to force the Russians to surrender the strategic port.

As reports of the Russian defeats began to reach Moscow, Czar Nicolas II ordered Admiral Rozhestvensky to prepare the Baltic fleet for immediate departure to the far east to rectify the situation. 

On October 2nd 1904 the fleet was finally assembled and left the port of Libau for its journey half way around the world to restore Russian pride and in the eyes of the world its status as a major power.

On January 2nd 1905 while taking on supplies in Madagascar, Admiral Rozhestvensky learned the news of port Arthur's capitulation to the Japanese. In March Rozhestvensky left port for a rendezvous in the Indian ocean with four more Russian battleships under the command of rear Admiral Nebogatov.

The entire Russian fleet was now assembled and placed under the overall command of Admiral Rozhestvensky, who with no respect or regard for the Japanese lying in wait, boldly took a direct route through the China sea. 

On May 14th Russia's now renamed second Pacific fleet was sighted approaching the Korean straight by the Japanese navy under the command of Admiral Togo.

 Rozhestvensky

Togo

On the afternoon of the 14th the two battle fleets converged upon one another. The more powerful Russian fleet comprised eleven battleships, eight heavy cruisers and ten destroyers.The Japanese countered with five battleships, twenty heavy cruisers, twenty destroyers and forty five fast moving torpedo boats.

Into the battle Admiral Rozhestvensky reduced his cruising speed to nine knots due in large part to his transport vessels could not keep up with the main fleet. Admiral Togo took full advantage by cutting loose his transports and increasing speed to fifteen knots.

In the opening phases of the battle the Japanese concentrated their fire power on the Russian flagship Suvorov and battleship Oslyabya hitting them each with multiple high explosive shells. As the Suvorov lay crippled the Japanese gunnery then finished off the Oslyabya sending her to the bottom with Captain Vladimir and his entire crew. 

Oslyabya

Aboard the now totally disabled Suvorov Admiral Rozhestvensky lay severely wounded and dying. The Russian battleships Alexander III and Borodino now took the full brunt of the Japanese attack as they tried to draw the Japanese fire away from the burning Suvorov.

By sixteen hundred hours Admiral Togo had lost sight of the Russian fleet due to the immense amount of haze and smoke produced by the heavy exchanges of gunfire between the two forces.

The Alexander III and Borodino having now sped away from the Suvorov gathered the heavy cruisers and formed a rear guard to protect the remainder of the destroyers and transports making a desperate run for the port of Vladivostok. 

Just before dusk this rear guard was overtaken by the pursuing Japanese battleships. Outnumbered and heavily outgunned both the Alexander III and Borodino after a valiant and heroic defense were sent to the bottom. 

At about this same moment the Russian flagship Suvorov began to slowly list into the water. The Russian destroyer Buyny bravely pulled alongside the sinking battleship and saved Admiral Rozhestvensky and his senior staff just before the great ship went under.

Alexander III

Borodino 

Suvorov 

Aboard the battleship Emperor Nicholas rear Admiral Nebogatov now attempted to take command of what was left of the battered Russian fleet, meanwhile Admiral Togo ordered his battleships to cease fire and sent in his fast destroyers and torpedo boats with orders to attack the stricken Russian ships at close range. 

Weaving in and out of the Russian squadrons virtually at will, the Japanese launched a total of eighty torpedoes into their completely helpless foes. The Russian battleships Sysoy Veliky and the Emperor Nicholas along with the heavy cruisers Monomakh and Nakhimov exploded and sank to the bottom with all hands.

By nightfall the Russian fleet was badly crippled. With no functioning command structure many Russian commanders simply took matters into their own hands attempting to disengage and breakthrough the Japanese encirclement. 

The Russian heavy cruisers Oleg, Aurora and Zhemchug managed to fight their way to safe harbour in the Philippines while many other wrecked and burning Russian ships fired their ammunition to the last round and were then scuttled by their crews. 

The wounded Admiral Rozhestvensky and his staff were transferred from the burning destroyer Buyny to the Bedovy which was then later captured by the Japanese.

Five Japanese battleships now surrounded the Ushakov, the last remaining Russian battleship afloat and ordered them to surrender. In response Captain Vladimir Miklukha ordered his crew to answer the Japanese with salvo's from the ships main batteries.

For over an hour the Ushakov fought on against overwhelming odds but eventually succumbed to superior Japanese firepower and sank. 

With the sinking of this last Russian warship the battle came to an end. The annihilation of the Russian Imperial fleet had been absolute, all eleven battleships along with five heavy cruisers and eight destroyers were sent to the bottom. 

The Russian's lost six thousand sailors killed and another sixty five hundred taken prisoner in comparison to Japanese losses of three destroyers and seven hundred sailors killed.

Togo visit's Rozhestvensky in hospital 

 

BATTLE OF THE RIVER PLATE

1939

Under the conditions imposed by the treaty of Versailles at the end of world war one, Germany was forbidden to construct surface warships in excess of ten thousand tons.

They would address these limitations with profound thought and masterly skill in producing the Deutschland class Panzerschiffe, Admiral Graf Spee. 

Armed with two triple eleven inch main guns, no single British heavy cruiser could match them. This class of warship would later be referred to as a pocket battleship.

Thirteen days before the start of the Second World War, Graf Spee slipped her moorings at Wilhelmshafen and proceeded deep into the southern Atlantic Ocean.

On September 3rd 1939 when hostilities between Great Britain, France and Germany had been declared, Captain Hans Langsdorff implemented his plan for attacking enemy shipping.

On September 26th, Graf Spee sank her first vessel of the war, the British steamship SS Clement, with her crew spared and taken prisoner. 

Graf Spee sank four more vessels in the month of October, then Langsdorff received reports that no less than eight allied hunting groups comprising nearly twenty four warships were now searching for her.     

Captain Langsdorff then decided to withdrawal from the Atlantic. He then navigated around the southern tip of Africa and escaped undetected into the Indian Ocean.

On November 15th, while sailing of the island of Madagascar, Langsdorff ordered the sinking of the British tanker Africa shell.

This attack was merely a feint, a tactic to register his position and draw the Allies towards the Indian Ocean. Langsdorff then sailed well south of the cape and re entered the South Atlantic.

During the week of December 2nd to the 7th, Graf Spee sank three more ships, one being the Doric Star which managed to get off a distress signal which indicated Langsdorff's position. 

Langsdorff then ordered the Graf Spee to head for the river plate estuary off the coast of Brazil, where the richest prizes in enemy shipping would be offered to her.

British Commodore, Henry Harwood's squadron was assigned to protect the shipping lanes in and around the river plate and eastern coast of South America. 

Harwood ordered three of his four warships, the 8 inch gun, HMS Exeter and two 6 inch gun cruisers, HMS Ajax and Achilles to position themselves east of the river plate and await their foe.

At 6:15 am on December 13th, Exeter sighted smoke. Aboard the Ajax, Harwood ordered his force to split into two attack groups, with the Exeter comprising one and the two smaller cruisers forming the other.

At first, Captain Langsdorff believed that only one light cruiser and two destroyers stood before him. He thus continued boldly forward towards the enemy ships at full speed.

Langsdorff targeted the larger Exeter and open fired. The Exeter received two hits which knocked out 'B' turret and destroyed the bridge killing everyone but Captain Frederick Bell. 

With Graf Spee's attention focused on Exeter, Harwood ordered his two light cruisers to close the distance and attack, which forced Langsdorff to take his guns off the heavily damaged Exeter. 

They quickly raced in and hit the German warship with both British ships putting up a persistent barrage from their rapid firing 6 inch guns. 

The swift cruiser attack had knocked out one of Graf Spee's 5.9 inch secondary batteries plus inflicted damage to the bow, quarter deck and much of her external super structure.

But now the German eleven inch main guns were trained upon her smaller adversaries and released a thunderous salvo which knocked out the two aft turrets on Ajax and inflicted damage to the Achilles. 

Aboard the Exeter, Captain Bell awoke to find his ship in bad shape, she was burning and listing to port. He also saw that Achilles and Ajax were heavily engaged and were taking the worst of it.

Captain Bell gathered what officers were left to him and proceeded to take over the aft control station, bringing the Exeter's last remaining eight inch gun turret back into the fight. 

As Graf Spee continued to train her guns on the British light cruisers, Captain Langsdorff was in complete disbelief as shells began to rain down on his position from the direction of the Exeter.

Langsdorff was now forced to direct his ships main armament back on the crippled Exeter, thus allowing Ajax and Achilles to escape out of range.

Graf Spee's first salvos hit their mark, knocking out Exeter's last remaining turret At 7:40 am, turning her into a flaming wreck. Bell radioed Harwood that his ship was out of action and in danger of sinking. 

Exeter could do no more, Commodore Harwood ordered Bell to make for the Falkland Islands and Ajax and Achilles to disengage. 

With the Exeter now out of the fight and the two smaller cruisers effectivley out of range, Captain Langsdorff could now asses the damage to his ship. 

Although Graf Spee's superstructure was slightly damaged and she remained sea worthy, her water purification and raw fuel processing systems had been destroyed.  

Langsdorff therefore ordered Graf Spee to make for the neutral South American port of Montevideo in Uruguay for repairs and re supply.

On December 14th, Graf Spee entered the safe haven of Montevideo, while HMS Ajax and Achilles lay just outside Uruguayan territorial waters, determined to prevent her escape.

The HMS Cumberland arrived the next day from the Falklands. The arrival of this eight inch gun heavy cruiser narrowly restored the firepower balance for Commodore Harwood.

A diplomatic battle now ensued between the British, German and Uruguayan governments. The British contested the German warship leave port in twenty four hours. Langsdorff argued the ship needed two weeks of repair. 

Although Commodore Harwood's task force had been badly mauled, he could not afford to allow Langsdorff to escape and make for Germany, he thus ordered both his damaged light cruisers to turn and pursue. 

Under intense pressure from all sides, the Uruguayan government decided on a deadline of December 17th, allotting the Graf Spee a mere seventy two hours for repairs.

The British then began circulating rumors that a British task force lead by the battleship HMS Renown and aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal, were lying in wait just outside of Uruguayan waters. 

On December 16th, Captain Langsdorff telegraphed the German Admiralty that his situation was dire and escape hopeless. After an emergency conference, Hitler approved the following cable.

Attempt by all means to extend time in neutral waters, Fight your way through to Buones Aires if possible, No internment in Uruguay, Attempt effective destruction if ship is scuttled.

Given these options, Langsdorff chose the latter and made arrangements to save his crew. On December 17th the Graf Spee's entire compliment was transferred to the German tanker Tacoma.

At 6:15pm, Langsdorff and a skeleton crew weighed anchor and steamed seawards. Four miles out, Graf Spee suddenly stopped, and was rocked by six large explosions which tore the ship apart, sinking her soon after.

At 8:45pm, Ajax reported to Harwood that Graf Spee had blown herself up, thus bringing to a conclusion the first surface challenge by the German Kreigsmarine to the British royal navy. 

Casualtie figures numbered 72 British sailors killed and 28 wounded in comparison to Graf Spee's losses of 36 killed and 60 wounded...

On December 20th, in Buenos Aires, Argentina, Captain Langsdorff, aged 45, retired to his hotel room, wrapped himself within his ships ensign and shot himself.

Langsdorf was later buried in Buenos Aires Argentina with full military honors. The crew of the Graf Spee were interned until 1946 when they were repatriated back to Germany.

BATTLE OF THE RIVER PLATE

YOU TUBE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FQIwnDpN6LI

 

THE CRUSADES  

The first crusade began in 1095 AD after the Byzantine Emperor Alexius I appealed to the leader of the Christian church Pope Urban II for military aid to combat the Muslim incursions against his empire. 

The Pope saw an opportunity to reunite the churches of east and west and thus requested the kings of Europe set aside their differences and unite under one banner to re conquer the holy lands from Muslim rule.

Two armies were raised for this historic undertaking, one made up of European volunteers comprising a mixture of princes, nobles, mercenaries and wealthy adventurers. 

The main Crusader force consisted of French and Norman armored knights, these were experienced battle hardened troops and most of the expeditions hopes of victory were riding on there success.

After crossing the Hellspont between Europe and Asia, the army of Europeans set out with high expectations but were defeated and literally annihilated by Muslim forces at the battle of Nicomedia in 1096. 

The main Crusader army after victories at Dorylaeum 1096 and Antioch 1098, had fought their way deep into the holy lands successfully capturing the cities of Ascalon and Jerusalem in 1099, thus completing the re conquest of the holy lands.

As a result of the Muslim defeats, four Crusader states were set up in Syria and Palestine, the principality of Antioch, the counties of Tripoli and Edessa and the kingdom of Jerusalem.

The Muslims however soon recovered and began launching counter attacks at the newly formed Crusader states. Without sufficient reinforcements from Europe, the hard pressed knights could not hold all the territory gained and the county of Edessa was lost in 1144.

This loss prompted the second crusade of 1147- 49, but while crossing Anatolia the Crusader army was severely mauled by Muslim forces and forced back across the Hellspont. This Crusader defeat enabled the Muslims to retake the kingdom of Jerusalem in 1187 AD.

The loss of Jerusalem prompted the immediate calling for a third crusade 1189- 92. This was to be commanded by two of Europe's finest generals, Richard the Lion Heart of England and Phillip Augustus of France.

 

Although this crusade failed to recapture the kingdom it did occupy and reinforce the coastline of Palestine thus ensuring the survival of the remaining crusader states.

By the 13th century, it was realized that the defence of the holy lands would always be in doubt so long as Egypt remained a center of Muslim power. The fourth crusade was now ordered 1202- 04, with the intention of occupying Egypt. 

The Crusader army began to assemble at the port city of Venice but could not pay the Venetians for the full passage. They were then diverted to the Byzantine capital of Constantinople in support Alexius Ducas, a claimant to the Byzantine throne who promised to financially back them once they placed him in power.

Once this task had been completed and the promise of transport and payment was not fulfilled, the Crusaders proceeded to sack the city and execute the newly crowned Bzantine emperor Alexius V, effectively ending the fourth crusade.

The fifth crusade 1217- 21, landed in Egypt and captured the port city of Damietta. As the Crusaders continued towards Cairo, they were stopped as a result of the Nile river flooding its banks and were forced to turn back and await the waters receding.

During this respite, powerful Muslim forces began to close on the city and the Crusaders found themselves surrounded and heavily outnumbered. The Europeans chose not to stand and fight but instead abandoned Egypt by sea.

During the sixth crusade 1228- 29, the holy Roman emperor Frederick II, re gained Jerusalem not through battle but keen diplomacy, however he could not secure enough territory to ensure its defence and the city was abandoned and lost to Muslim forces in 1244 AD.

The seventh crusade 1248- 54, under King Louis IX of France landed in Egypt but was decisivlery defeated at the second Battle of Mansurah on February 11th 1254, with most of the army including the king taken prisoner by the Muslims.

 After a large ransom was paid and King Louis IX released, he organized and led the The eighth crusade 1270, which was directed against the Muslim held African territory of Tunis, with the intention of using it as a base for future attacks against Egypt. 

This Crusade ended in utter disaster as King Louis IX died of dysentery shortly after arriving. Leaderless and without any finacial backing forthcomming, the Crusaders were forced to sign a humiliating  peace treaty with the Hafsid Dynasty and pay a large tribute for safe passage back to Europe.  

More significant than the crusades themselves in ensuring the survival of the Crusader states were the Mongol invasions of the Muslim world, 1217 - 1260 AD. 

However after the decisive Muslim victory over the Mongols at Ain Jalut in 1260 AD, the Muslims turned their full attention back against the remaining Crusader states with the last of which falling 1291, thus ending Europe's attempts to reclaim the Holy lands for Christianity.